What Is the Peak of Greek Art and Architecture

Era of architecture

Aboriginal Greek architecture

Meridian: The Parthenon (460-406 BC); Centre: The Erechtheion (421-406 BC); Bottom: Analogy of Doric (left three), Ionic (center three) and Corinthian (right two) columns
Years active	c. 900 BC-1st century Advertisement

Ancient Greek architecture came from the Greek-speaking people (Hellenic people) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland, the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in Anatolia and Italian republic for a catamenia from about 900 BC until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architectural works dating from around 600 BC.^[1]

Aboriginal Greek architecture is best known from its temples, many of which are establish throughout the region, with the Parthenon regarded, at present as in ancient times, as the prime example.^[2] Most remains are very incomplete ruins, but a number survive essentially intact, mostly outside modern Hellenic republic. The second of import type of building that survives all over the Hellenic earth is the open-air theatre, with the earliest dating from around 525–480 BC. Other architectural forms that are still in evidence are the processional gateway (propylon), the public square (agora) surrounded by storied colonnade (stoa), the town council building (bouleuterion), the public monument, the monumental tomb (mausoleum) and the stadium.

Aboriginal Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly formalised characteristics, both of structure and decoration. This is particularly so in the case of temples where each building appears to have been conceived equally a sculptural entity within the landscape, nigh often raised on high ground so that the elegance of its proportions and the effects of light on its surfaces might be viewed from all angles.^[three] Nikolaus Pevsner refers to "the plastic shape of the [Greek] temple [...] placed before us with a physical presence more than intense, more alive than that of any later building".^[4]

The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in item the division of architectural way into iii defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and the Corinthian Gild, was to have a profound effect on Western architecture of afterward periods. The architecture of aboriginal Rome grew out of that of Greece and maintained its influence in Italy unbroken until the present day. From the Renaissance, revivals of Classicism have kept alive non only the precise forms and ordered details of Greek architecture, but too its concept of architectural beauty based on balance and proportion. The successive styles of Neoclassical architecture and Greek Revival architecture followed and adapted ancient Greek styles closely.

Influences [edit]

Geography [edit]

The mainland and islands of Hellenic republic are very rocky, with securely indented coastline, and rugged mount ranges with few substantial forests. The near freely available building material is rock. Limestone was readily available and easily worked.^[5] In that location is an abundance of high quality white marble both on the mainland and islands, particularly Paros and Naxos. This finely grained cloth was a major contributing factor to precision of detail, both architectural and sculptural, that adorned ancient Greek architecture.^[6] Deposits of high-quality potter's clay were plant throughout Greece and the Islands, with major deposits near Athens. It was used not only for pottery vessels but also roof tiles and architectural decoration.^[7]

The climate of Hellenic republic is maritime, with both the coldness of winter and the rut of summer tempered past bounding main breezes. This led to a lifestyle where many activities took place outdoors. Hence temples were placed on hilltops, their exteriors designed as a visual focus of gatherings and processions, while theatres were often an enhancement of a naturally occurring sloping site where people could sit, rather than a containing structure. Colonnades encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided shelter from the sun and from sudden winter storms.^[6]

The light of Greece may be another important factor in the evolution of the particular grapheme of aboriginal Greek architecture. The light is oft extremely bright, with both the heaven and the sea vividly bluish. The clear lite and sharp shadows give a precision to the details of the landscape, pale rocky outcrops and seashore. This clarity is alternated with periods of brume that varies in color to the light on it. In this feature environment, the ancient Greek architects synthetic buildings that were marked by the precision of detail.^[six] The gleaming marble surfaces were smooth, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to reflect the sun, bandage graded shadows and change in color with the ever-irresolute calorie-free of day.

The rugged indented coastline at Rhamnous, Attica

The Theatre and Temple of Apollo in mountainous country at Delphi

The Acropolis, Athens, is loftier above the city on a natural prominence.

History [edit]

Historians carve up aboriginal Greek civilization into ii eras, the Hellenic period (from around 900 BC to the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC), and the Hellenistic menses (323 BC to 30 Advertisement).^[8] During the earlier Hellenic catamenia, substantial works of compages began to appear around 600 BC. During the later (Hellenistic) period, Greek culture spread equally a result of Alexander'south conquest of other lands, and afterwards as a result of the rise of the Roman Empire, which adopted much of Greek culture.^{[i] [9]}

Before the Hellenic era, two major cultures had dominated the region: the Minoan (c. 2800–1100 BC), and the Mycenaean (c. 1500–1100 BC). Minoan is the name given by mod historians to the culture of the people of ancient Crete, known for its elaborate and richly decorated palaces, and for its pottery, the most famous of which painted with floral and motifs of sea life. The Mycenaean culture, which flourished on the Peloponnesus, was quite different in graphic symbol. Its people built citadels, fortifications and tombs rather than palaces, and decorated their pottery with bands of marching soldiers rather than octopus and seaweed. Both these civilizations came to an end effectually 1100 BC, that of Crete possibly considering of volcanic devastation, and that of Mycenae because of an invasion past the Dorian people who lived on the Greek mainland.^[10] Following these events, there was a period from which merely a hamlet level of culture seems to have existed. This period is thus often referred to as the Greek Dark Historic period.

Fine art [edit]

Black effigy Amphora, Atalante painter (500–490 BC), shows proportion and style that are hallmarks of ancient Greek art

The Kritios Boy, (c.480 BC), typifies the tradition of free-standing figures

The art history of the Hellenic era is more often than not subdivided into four periods: the Protogeometric (1100–900 BC), the Geometric (900–700 BC), the Archaic (700–500 BC) and the Classical (500–323 BC)^[xi] with sculpture beingness further divided into Severe Classical, High Classical and Belatedly Classical.^[i] The first signs of the particular artistic character that defines ancient Greek architecture are to exist seen in the pottery of the Dorian Greeks from the 10th century BC. Already at this period it is created with a sense of proportion, symmetry and balance not apparent in like pottery from Crete and Mycenae. The decoration is precisely geometric, and ordered neatly into zones on defined areas of each vessel. These qualities were to manifest themselves not but through a millennium of Greek pottery making, just also in the compages that was to sally in the 6th century.^[12] The major evolution that occurred was in the growing use of the human figure as the major decorative motif, and the increasing surety with which humanity, its mythology, activities and passions were depicted.^[1]

The evolution in the depiction of the man class in pottery was accompanied by a similar evolution in sculpture. The tiny stylised bronzes of the Geometric period gave way to life-sized highly formalised monolithic representation in the Archaic period. The Classical menstruation was marked past a rapid development towards idealised but increasingly lifelike depictions of gods in human grade.^[xiii] This development had a direct issue on the sculptural decoration of temples, every bit many of the greatest extant works of aboriginal Greek sculpture once adorned temples,^[xiv] and many of the largest recorded statues of the age, such every bit the lost chryselephantine statues of Zeus at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and Athena at the Parthenon, Athens, both over 40 feet loftier, were one time housed in them.^[15]

Religion and philosophy [edit]

To a higher place: Modern model of ancient Olympia with the Temple of Zeus at the centre

Right: Recreation of the colossal statue of Athena, in one case housed in the Parthenon, with sculptor Alan LeQuire

The religion of ancient Greece was a class of nature worship that grew out of the beliefs of before cultures. However, different earlier cultures, the man was no longer perceived as existence threatened by nature, but equally its sublime product.^[ix] The natural elements were personified equally gods of the complete human being course, and very human behaviour.^{[half dozen]}

The home of the gods was thought to be Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. The most important deities were: Zeus, the supreme god and ruler of the sky; Hera, his wife and goddess of marriage; Athena, goddess of wisdom; Poseidon, the god of the sea; Demeter, goddess of the harvest; Apollo, the god of the sun, law, healing, plague, reason, music and poetry; Artemis, goddess of the moon, the hunt and the wilderness; Aphrodite, goddess of dearest; Ares, God of war; Hermes, the god of commerce and travellers, Hephaestus, the god of fire and metalwork, and Dionysus, the god of wine and fruit-bearing plants.^[vi] Worship, like many other activities, was done in the community, in the open. Still, by 600 BC, the gods were often represented past large statues and it was necessary to provide a building in which each of these could be housed. This led to the evolution of temples.^[16]

The ancient Greeks perceived society in the universe, and in turn, applied order and reason to their creations. Their humanist philosophy put mankind at the centre of things and promoted well-ordered societies and the development of democracy.^[ix] At the same time, the respect for human intellect demanded a reason, and promoted a passion for research, logic, challenge, and problem-solving. The architecture of the ancient Greeks, and in detail, temple compages, responds to these challenges with a passion for dazzler, and for order and symmetry which is the product of a continual search for perfection, rather than a simple application of a set of working rules.

Architectural graphic symbol [edit]

Early on development [edit]

There is a clear division betwixt the compages of the preceding Mycenaean and Minoan cultures and that of the ancient Greeks, with much of the techniques and an agreement of their fashion being lost when these civilisations fell.^[5]

Mycenaean compages is marked by massive fortifications, typically surrounding a citadel with a royal palace, much smaller than the rambling Minoan "palaces", and relatively few other buildings. The megaron, a rectangular hall with a hearth in the eye, was the largest room in the palaces, and likewise larger houses. Sunday-dried brick above rubble bases were the usual materials, with wooden columns and roof-beams. Rows of ashlar stone orthostats lined the base of walls in some prominent locations.^[17]

The Minoan compages of Crete was of the trabeated form similar that of ancient Greece. Information technology employed wooden columns with capitals, but the wooden columns were of a very different grade to Doric columns, being narrow at the base of operations and splaying upwardly.^[10] The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem to have adult independently. As with Minoan architecture, aboriginal Greek domestic architecture centred on open spaces or courtyards surrounded past colonnades. This grade was adapted to the construction of hypostyle halls within the larger temples. The development that occurred in architecture was towards the public building, commencement and foremost the temple, rather than towards grand domestic architecture such as had evolved in Crete,^[3] if the Cretan "palaces" were indeed domestic, which remains very uncertain.

Some Mycenaean tombs are marked by round structures and tapered domes with apartment-bedded, cantilevered courses.^[ten] This architectural class did non bear over into the architecture of ancient Hellenic republic, merely reappeared about 400 BC in the interior of large monumental tombs such every bit the King of beasts Tomb at Knidos (c. 350 BC).

Types of buildings [edit]

Domestic buildings [edit]

The Greek word for the family or household, oikos, is also the proper noun for the house. Houses followed several different types. It is probable that many of the earliest houses were simple structures of two rooms, with an open porch or pronaos, above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment.^[eight] This class is thought to accept contributed to temple architecture.

Plan of the House of Colline, 2nd century BC

The Firm of Masks, Delos, third century BC

The House of Masks

The construction of many houses employed walls of sun-stale clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous material such as harbinger or seaweed covered with clay or plaster, on a base of stone which protected the more vulnerable elements from damp.^[5] The roofs were probably of thatch with eaves which overhung the permeable walls. Many larger houses, such as those at Delos, were built of rock and plastered. The roofing material for the substantial firm was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic floors and demonstrated the Classical style.

Many houses centred on a broad passage or "pasta" which ran the length of the house and opened at one side onto a pocket-sized courtyard which admitted low-cal and air. Larger houses had a fully developed peristyle (courtyard) at the centre, with the rooms bundled effectually it. Some houses had an upper floor which appears to accept been reserved for the use of the women of the family.^[xviii]

Urban center houses were congenital with adjoining walls and were divided into minor blocks by narrow streets. Shops were sometimes located in the rooms towards the street. City houses were inward-facing, with major openings looking onto the primal courtyard, rather than the street.^[8]

Public buildings [edit]

The rectangular temple is the about common and best-known grade of Greek public compages. This rectilinear structure borrows from the Late Helladic, Mycenaean megaron, which contained a central throne room, vestibule, and porch.^[xix] The temple did non serve the same function as a modern church, since the altar stood under the open up sky in the temenos or sacred precinct, often straight before the temple. Temples served as the location of a cult image and as a storage identify or strong room for the treasury associated with the cult of the god in question, and as a place for devotees of the god to leave their votive offerings, such as statues, helmets and weapons. Some Greek temples appear to have been oriented astronomically.^[20] The temple was by and large part of a religious precinct known as the acropolis. According to Aristotle, "the site should exist a spot seen far and wide, which gives practiced elevation to virtue and towers over the neighbourhood".^[3] Pocket-size circular temples, tholoi were also constructed, too equally small temple-like buildings that served as treasuries for specific groups of donors.^[21]

Porta Rosa, a street (3rd century BC) Velia, Italian republic

During the late 5th and 4th centuries BC, town planning became an of import consideration of Greek builders, with towns such as Paestum and Priene beingness laid out with a regular grid of paved streets and an agora or fundamental market identify surrounded by a colonnade or stoa. The completely restored Stoa of Attalos can be seen in Athens. Towns were also equipped with a public fountain where water could exist collected for household apply. The development of regular boondocks plans is associated with Hippodamus of Miletus, a pupil of Pythagoras.^{[22] [23] [24]}

Public buildings became "dignified and gracious structures", and were sited and so that they related to each other architecturally.^[23] The propylon or porch, formed the entrance to temple sanctuaries and other meaning sites with the best-surviving example being the Propylaea on the Acropolis of Athens. The bouleuterion was a large public building with a hypostyle hall that served every bit a court business firm and equally a meeting place for the town council (boule). Remnants of bouleuterion survive at Athens, Olympia and Miletus, the latter having held up to ane,200 people.^[25]

Every Greek boondocks had an open-air theatre. These were used for both public meetings as well as dramatic performances. The theatre was usually prepare in a hillside outside the boondocks, and had rows of tiered seating set in a semicircle around the fundamental performance area, the orchestra. Behind the orchestra was a low edifice called the skênê, which served as a store-room, a dressing-room, and too as a backdrop to the action taking identify in the orchestra. A number of Greek theatres survive almost intact, the best known being at Epidaurus by the architect Polykleitos the Younger.^[22]

Greek towns of substantial size too had a palaestra or a gymnasium, the social centre for male person citizens which included spectator areas, baths, toilets and lodge rooms.^[25] Other buildings associated with sports include the hippodrome for horse racing, of which just remnants accept survived, and the stadium for human foot racing, 600 feet in length, of which examples exist at Olympia, Delphi, Epidaurus and Ephesus, while the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens, which seats 45,000 people, was restored in the 19th century and was used in the 1896, 1906 and 2004 Olympic Games.^{[25] [26]}

The Palaestra at Olympia, used for battle and wrestling

Pebble mosaic floor of a house at Olynthos, depicting Bellerophon

Construction [edit]

Postal service and lintel [edit]

The architecture of aboriginal Greece is of a trabeated or "postal service and lintel" form, i.e. it is equanimous of upright beams (posts) supporting horizontal beams (lintels). Although the existent buildings of the era are constructed in stone, information technology is clear that the origin of the style lies in simple wooden structures, with vertical posts supporting beams which carried a ridged roof. The posts and beams divided the walls into regular compartments which could be left equally openings, or filled with sun dried bricks, lathes or harbinger and covered with clay daub or plaster. Alternately, the spaces might be filled with rubble. Information technology is likely that many early houses and temples were constructed with an open porch or "pronaos" above which rose a low pitched gable or pediment.^[8]

The primeval temples, built to enshrine statues of deities, were probably of wooden structure, later replaced by the more than durable stone temples many of which are still in evidence today. The signs of the original timber nature of the architecture were maintained in the stone buildings.^[27]

A few of these temples are very big, with several, such as the Temple of Zeus Olympus and the Olympians at Athens existence well over 300 feet in length, but most were less than half this size. It appears that some of the large temples began every bit wooden constructions in which the columns were replaced piecemeal as stone became available. This, at least was the interpretation of the historian Pausanias looking at the Temple of Hera at Olympia in the 2d century Advertizing.^[3]

The stone columns are made of a series of solid stone cylinders or "drums" that remainder on each other without mortar, but were sometimes centred with a bronze pin. The columns are wider at the base than at the top, tapering with an outward bend known every bit entasis. Each cavalcade has a upper-case letter of two parts, the upper, on which rests the lintels, being square and called the abacus. The part of the capital that rises from the column itself is chosen the echinus. It differs according to the order, beingness apparently in the Doric order, fluted in the Ionic and foliate in the Corinthian. Doric and usually Ionic capitals are cut with vertical grooves known equally fluting. This fluting or grooving of the columns is a retention of an element of the original wooden compages.^[27]

Entablature and pediment [edit]

The columns of a temple support a structure that rises in 2 main stages, the entablature and the pediment.

The entablature is the major horizontal structural chemical element supporting the roof and encircling the entire building. It is composed of 3 parts. Resting on the columns is the architrave made of a series of stone "lintels" that spanned the space between the columns, and encounter each other at a joint direct higher up the centre of each cavalcade.

Above the architrave is a second horizontal phase called the frieze. The frieze is one of the major decorative elements of the building and carries a sculptured relief. In the case of Ionic and Corinthian compages, the relief decoration runs in a continuous band, simply in the Doric order, it is divided into sections called metopes, which fill the spaces between vertical rectangular blocks chosen triglyphs. The triglyphs are vertically grooved like the Doric columns, and retain the form of the wooden beams that would one time take supported the roof.

The upper band of the entablature is chosen the cornice, which is mostly ornately decorated on its lower edge. The cornice retains the shape of the beams that would one time have supported the wooden roof at each end of the edifice. At the front and rear of each temple, the entablature supports a triangular structure called the pediment. The tympanum is the triangular space framed by the cornices and the location of the most significant sculptural decoration on the exterior of the building.

Masonry [edit]

Every temple rested on a masonry base of operations called the crepidoma, mostly of iii steps, of which the upper ane which carried the columns was the stylobate. Masonry walls were employed for temples from virtually 600 BC onwards. Masonry of all types was used for ancient Greek buildings, including rubble, but the finest ashlar masonry was commonly employed for temple walls, in regular courses and large sizes to minimise the joints.^[8] The blocks were crude hewn and hauled from quarries to be cutting and bedded very precisely, with mortar hardly e'er being used. Blocks, specially those of columns and parts of the edifice begetting loads were sometimes fixed in identify or reinforced with iron clamps, dowels and rods of wood, bronze or iron fixed in lead to minimise corrosion.^[5]

Openings [edit]

Door and window openings were spanned with a lintel, which in a rock building express the possible width of the opening. The distance between columns was similarly affected by the nature of the lintel, columns on the exterior of buildings and conveying stone lintels being closer together than those on the interior, which carried wooden lintels.^{[28] [29]} Door and window openings narrowed towards the top.^[29] Temples were constructed without windows, the light to the naos entering through the door. It has been suggested that some temples were lit from openings in the roof.^[28] A door of the Ionic Order at the Erechtheion (17 anxiety loftier and seven.5 anxiety wide at the top) retains many of its features intact, including mouldings, and an entablature supported on console brackets. (See Architectural Decoration, below) ^{[29] [thirty] [31]}

The Parthenon, shows the common structural features of Ancient Greek compages: crepidoma, columns, entablature, pediment.

Erechtheion: masonry, door, stone lintels, coffered ceiling panels

At the Temple of Aphaia, the hypostyle columns rise in two tiers, to a height greater than the walls, to support a roof without struts.

Roof [edit]

The widest bridge of a temple roof was across the cella, or inner chamber. In a large building, this space contains columns to support the roof, the architectural form being known as hypostyle. It appears that, although the architecture of ancient Hellenic republic was initially of wooden construction, the early on builders did not have the concept of the diagonal truss as a stabilising member. This is evidenced past the nature of temple structure in the sixth century BC, where the rows of columns supporting the roof the cella ascent higher than the outer walls, unnecessary if roof trusses are employed as an integral part of the wooden roof. The indication is that initially all the rafters were supported direct by the entablature, walls and hypostyle, rather than on a trussed wooden frame, which came into utilise in Greek architecture simply in the 3rd century BC.^[eight]

Ancient Greek buildings of timber, dirt and plaster construction were probably roofed with thatch. With the ascension of stone architecture came the advent of fired ceramic roof tiles. These early roof tiles showed an South-shape, with the pan and cover tile forming i piece. They were much larger than modern roof tiles, existence up to 90 cm (35.43 in) long, 70 cm (27.56 in) broad, iii–4 cm (1.eighteen–1.57 in) thick and weighing around xxx kg (66 lb) apiece.^[32] Just stone walls, which were replacing the earlier mudbrick and wood walls, were strong plenty to support the weight of a tiled roof.^[33]

The earliest finds of roof tiles of the Archaic period in Hellenic republic are documented from a very restricted expanse around Corinth, where fired tiles began to replace thatched roofs at the temples of Apollo and Poseidon between 700 and 650 BC.^[34] Spreading rapidly, roof tiles were within l years in evidence for a large number of sites around the Eastern Mediterranean, including Mainland Hellenic republic, Western Asia Small, Southern and Central Italian republic.^[34] Beingness more expensive and labour-intensive to produce than thatch, their introduction has been explained by the fact that their fireproof quality would have given desired protection to the costly temples.^[34] Equally a side-effect, it has been causeless that the new stone and tile construction besides ushered in the end of overhanging eaves in Greek compages, as they made the need for an extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls obsolete.^[33]

Vaults and arches were not generally used, but begin to announced in tombs (in a "beehive" or cantilevered form such as used in Mycenaea) and occasionally, as an external feature, exedrae of voussoired construction from the 5th century BC. The dome and vault never became significant structural features, as they were to become in aboriginal Roman compages.^[8]

Temple plans [edit]

Plans of Ancient Greek Temples
Top: one. distyle in antis, ii. amphidistyle in antis, 3. tholos, 4. prostyle tetrastyle, 5. amphiprostyle tetrastyle,
Bottom: 6. dipteral octastyle, 7. peripteral hexastyle, eight. pseudoperipteral hexastyle, 9. pseudodipteral octastyle

Most ancient Greek temples were rectangular, and were approximately twice equally long as they were wide, with some notable exceptions such as the enormous Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens with a length of nigh 2½ times its width. A number of surviving temple-like structures are round, and are referred to as tholos.^[35] The smallest temples are less than 25 metres (approx. 75 feet) in length, or in the case of the circular tholos, in diameter. The great majority of temples are between 30–60 metres (approx. 100–200 feet) in length. A small-scale group of Doric temples, including the Parthenon, are between 60–80 metres (approx. 200–260 anxiety) in length. The largest temples, mainly Ionic and Corinthian, but including the Doric Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Agrigento, were between 90–120 metres (approx. 300–390 feet) in length.

The temple rises from a stepped base or stylobate, which elevates the structure to a higher place the ground on which information technology stands. Early examples, such every bit the Temple of Zeus at Olympus, have ii steps, simply the bulk, like the Parthenon, accept three, with the exceptional example of the Temple of Apollo at Didyma having half dozen.^[36] The core of the building is a masonry-built "naos" inside which is a cella, a windowless room originally housing the statue of the god. The cella more often than not has a porch or "pronaos" before it, and perhaps a 2nd chamber or "antenaos" serving as a treasury or repository for trophies and gifts. The chambers were lit by a single large doorway, fitted with a wrought fe grill. Some rooms announced to accept been illuminated past skylights.^[36]

On the stylobate, often completely surrounding the naos, stand rows of columns. Each temple is defined every bit being of a particular type, with two terms: 1 describing the number of columns across the entrance front, and the other defining their distribution.^[36]

Examples:

• Distyle in antis describes a small temple with two columns at the forepart, which are set up between the projecting walls of the pronaos or porch, similar the Temple of Nemesis at Rhamnus. (meet left, figure 1.) ^[35]
• Amphiprostyle tetrastyle describes a small-scale temple that has columns at both ends which stand articulate of the naos. Tetrastyle indicates that the columns are four in number, similar those of the Temple on the Ilissus in Athens. (figure four.) ^[35]
• Peripteral hexastyle describes a temple with a single row of peripheral columns effectually the naos, with 6 columns across the forepart, like the Theseion in Athens. (effigy seven.) ^[35]
• Peripteral octastyle describes a temple with a single row of columns around the naos, (effigy 7.) with 8 columns across the front, like the Parthenon, Athens. (figs. 6 and ix.) ^[35]
• Dipteral decastyle describes the huge temple of Apollo at Didyma, with the naos surrounded past a double row of columns, (figure 6.) with ten columns beyond the entrance front.^[35]
• The Temple of Zeus Olympius at Agrigentum, is termed Pseudo-periteral heptastyle, because its encircling pillar has pseudo columns that are fastened to the walls of the naos. (figure 8.) Heptastyle means that it has seven columns beyond the entrance front.^[35]

Proportion and optical illusion [edit]

The platonic of proportion that was used past ancient Greek architects in designing temples was non a unproblematic mathematical progression using a square module. The math involved a more complex geometrical progression, the so-called golden mean. The ratio is like to that of the growth patterns of many spiral forms that occur in nature such as rams' horns, nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which were a source of decorative motifs employed past ancient Greek architects every bit peculiarly in evidence in the volutes of capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.^[37]

${\displaystyle {\frac {ane}{\varphi }}=\varphi -1;\;\varphi ={\frac {i+{\sqrt {5}}}{2}}\approx one.618}$

The ancient Greek architects took a philosophic approach to the rules and proportions. The determining factor in the mathematics of whatever notable piece of work of architecture was its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for perspective, for the optical illusions that make edges of objects announced concave and for the fact that columns that are viewed confronting the heaven await different from those adjacent that are viewed against a shadowed wall. Because of these factors, the architects adapted the plans and so that the major lines of whatsoever significant edifice are rarely straight.^[37] The most obvious adjustment is to the profile of columns, which narrow from base to height. However, the narrowing is not regular, but gently curved and then that each columns appears to have a slight swelling, called entasis beneath the middle. The entasis is never sufficiently pronounced as to brand the swelling wider than the base; it is controlled past a slight reduction in the rate of subtract of diameter.^[8]

The main lines of the Parthenon are all curved.

A sectioned nautilus shell. These shells may take provided inspiration for voluted Ionic capitals.

The growth of the nautilus corresponds to the Aureate Mean

The Parthenon, the Temple to the Goddess Athena on the Acropolis in Athens, is referred to by many as the superlative of ancient Greek architecture. Helen Gardner refers to its "unsurpassable excellence", to be surveyed, studied and emulated by architects of subsequently ages. Yet, as Gardner points out, there is hardly a straight line in the edifice.^[38] Banister Fletcher calculated that the stylobate curves upward then that its centres at either end rise about 65 millimetres (2.6 inches) above the outer corners, and 110 mm (four.3 in) on the longer sides. A slightly greater adjustment has been made to the entablature. The columns at the ends of the building are not vertical but are inclined towards the centre, with those at the corners being out of plumb by nearly 65 mm (2.6 in).^[8] These outer columns are both slightly wider than their neighbours and are slightly closer than any of the others.^[39]

Manner [edit]

above: Capital of the Ionic order showing volutes and ornamented echinus

left: Architectural elements of the Doric gild showing simple curved echinus of capital

in a higher place: Uppercase of the Corinthian Lodge showing foliate ornament and vertical volutes.

Orders [edit]

Ancient Greek compages of the most formal type, for temples and other public buildings, is divided stylistically into three Classical orders, first described by the Roman architectural writer Vitruvius. These are: the Doric order, the Ionic social club, and the Corinthian club, the names reflecting their regional origins within the Greek world. While the three orders are most easily recognizable by their capitals, they also governed the form, proportions, details and relationships of the columns, entablature, pediment, and the stylobate.^[3] The different orders were applied to the whole range of buildings and monuments.

The Doric order developed on mainland Hellenic republic and spread to Magna Graecia (Italy). It was firmly established and well-defined in its characteristics by the time of the building of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, c. 600 BC. The Ionic lodge co-existed with the Doric, being favoured by the Greek cities of Ionia, in Asia Minor and the Aegean Islands. Information technology did not reach a conspicuously defined form until the mid 5th century BC.^[27] The early on Ionic temples of Asia Pocket-size were especially ambitious in scale, such every bit the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.^[12] The Corinthian lodge was a highly decorative variant not adult until the Hellenistic period and retaining many characteristics of the Ionic. It was popularised by the Romans.^[8]

Doric order [edit]

The Doric order is recognised by its capital, of which the echinus is like a round cushion rising from the top of the cavalcade to the square abacus on which rest the lintels. The echinus appears apartment and splayed in early examples, deeper and with greater curve in afterwards, more refined examples, and smaller and straight-sided in Hellenistic examples.^[40] A refinement of the Doric column is the entasis, a gentle convex swelling to the profile of the column, which prevents an optical illusion of concavity.^[twoscore] This is more than pronounced in before examples.

Doric columns are almost always cutting with grooves, known as "fluting", which run the length of the column and are usually 20 in number, although sometimes fewer. The flutes meet at sharp edges called arrises. At the top of the columns, slightly beneath the narrowest bespeak, and crossing the terminating arrises, are three horizontal grooves known every bit the hypotrachelion. Doric columns have no bases, until a few examples in the Hellenistic flow.^[40]

The columns of an early Doric temple such as the Temple of Apollo at Syracuse, Sicily, may have a height to base bore ratio of only iv:1 and a column top to entablature ratio of ii:1, with relatively crude details. A column height to diameter of half-dozen:1 became more usual, while the column height to entablature ratio at the Parthenon is about 3:ane. During the Hellenistic period, Doric conventions of solidity and masculinity dropped away, with the slender and unfluted columns reaching a height to diameter ratio of seven.v:one.^[forty]

The tapered fluted columns, constructed in drums, residual directly on the stylobate.

The Doric entablature is in three parts, the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. The architrave is composed of the stone lintels which span the space betwixt the columns, with a joint occurring higher up the centre of each abacus. On this rests the frieze, one of the major areas of sculptural decoration. The frieze is divided into triglyphs and metopes, the triglyphs, equally stated elsewhere in this article, are a reminder of the timber history of the architectural style. Each triglyph has three vertical grooves, like to the columnar fluting, and below them, seemingly connected, are guttae, small strips that appear to connect the triglyphs to the architrave below.^[forty] A triglyph is located above the centre of each capital, and above the centre of each lintel. However, at the corners of the building, the triglyphs do not autumn over the centre the column. The aboriginal architects took a businesslike approach to the credible "rules", but extending the width of the terminal two metopes at each stop of the edifice.

The cornice is a narrow jutting band of complex molding, which overhangs and protects the ornamented frieze, like the edge of an overhanging wooden-framed roof. It is decorated on the underside with projecting blocks, mutules, further suggesting the wooden nature of the prototype. At either end of the building the pediment rises from the cornice, framed by moulding of similar form.^[40]

The pediment is decorated with figures that are in relief in the earlier examples, though almost free-standing by the fourth dimension of the sculpture on the Parthenon. Early architectural sculptors establish difficulty in creating satisfactory sculptural compositions in the tapering triangular space.^[41] By the Early Classical period, with the ornament of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (486–460 BC), the sculptors had solved the problem past having a standing fundamental figure framed by rearing centaurs and fighting men who are falling, kneeling and lying in attitudes that fit the size and bending of each role of the space.^[38] The famous sculptor Phidias fills the space at the Parthenon (448–432 BC) with a complex array of draped and undraped figures of deities, who appear in attitudes of sublime relaxation and elegance.

Ionic order [edit]

The Ionic social club is recognized by its voluted uppercase, in which a curved echinus of similar shape to that of the Doric order, but decorated with stylised ornament, is surmounted by a horizontal ring that scrolls nether to either side, forming spirals or volutes similar to those of the nautilus shell or ram's horn. In plan, the capital is rectangular. Information technology is designed to be viewed frontally merely the capitals at the corners of buildings are modified with an boosted roll so as to announced regular on ii bordering faces. In the Hellenistic catamenia, four-fronted Ionic capitals became common.^[42]

Corner upper-case letter with a diagonal volute, showing besides details of the fluting separated past fillets.

Frieze of stylised alternating palms and reeds, and a cornice busy with "egg and sprint" moulding.

Similar the Doric order, the Ionic order retains signs of having its origins in wooden architecture. The horizontal spread of a flat timber plate across the top of a column is a mutual device in wooden construction, giving a thin upright a wider area on which to bear the lintel, while at the same time reinforcing the load-bearing strength of the lintel itself. Likewise, the columns always have bases, a necessity in wooden architecture to spread the load and protect the base of a insufficiently sparse upright.^[42] The columns are fluted with narrow, shallow flutes that exercise non meet at a sharp border simply have a flat ring or fillet betwixt them. The usual number of flutes is twenty-four only there may be equally many as forty-four. The base has two convex mouldings called torus, and from the tardily Hellenic menstruation stood on a foursquare plinth similar to the abacus.^[42]

The architrave of the Ionic order is sometimes undecorated, but more oftentimes rises in three outwardly-stepped bands similar overlapping timber planks. The frieze, which runs in a continuous band, is separated from the other members by rows of small projecting blocks. They are referred to equally dentils, pregnant "teeth", but their origin is clearly in narrow wooden slats which supported the roof of a timber structure.^[42] The Ionic guild is altogether lighter in appearance than the Doric, with the columns, including base and uppercase, having a 9:1 ratio with the bore, while the whole entablature was also much narrower and less heavy than the Doric entablature. At that place was some variation in the distribution of decoration. Formalised bands of motifs such equally alternating forms known as egg-and-sprint were a feature of the Ionic entablatures, forth with the bands of dentils. The external frieze often contained a continuous band of figurative sculpture or ornamentation, but this was not always the case. Sometimes a decorative frieze occurred around the upper part of the naos rather than on the outside of the edifice. These Ionic-style friezes effectually the naos are sometimes found on Doric buildings, notably the Parthenon. Some temples, like the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, had friezes of figures around the lower drum of each column, separated from the fluted section by a bold moulding.^[42]

Caryatids, draped female figures used as supporting members to carry the entablature, were a feature of the Ionic order, occurring at several buildings including the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi in 525 BC and at the Erechtheion, about 410 BC.^[43]

The tall capital letter combines both semi-naturalistic leaves and highly stylised tendrils forming volutes.

Corinthian order [edit]

The Corinthian lodge does not have its origin in wooden compages. It grew directly out of the Ionic in the mid fifth century BC, and was initially of much the same style and proportion, but distinguished past its more ornate capitals.^[44] The capital letter was very much deeper than either the Doric or the Ionic capital, being shaped similar a large krater, a bell-shaped mixing basin, and being ornamented with a double row of acanthus leaves higher up which rose voluted tendrils, supporting the corners of the abacus, which, no longer perfectly foursquare, splayed in a higher place them. According to Vitruvius, the capital was invented by a statuary founder, Callimachus of Corinth, who took his inspiration from a basket of offerings that had been placed on a grave, with a flat tile on height to protect the appurtenances. The basket had been placed on the root of an acanthus establish which had grown up around it.^[44] The ratio of the column meridian to bore is generally 10:1, with the upper-case letter taking up more than i/10 of the acme. The ratio of capital peak to diameter is generally about one.16:1.^[44]

The Corinthian order was initially used internally, as at the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae (c. 450–425 BC). In 334 BC, it appeared as an external feature on the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, and then on a huge calibration at the Temple of Zeus Olympia in Athens (174 BC–132 AD).^[44] It was popularised past the Romans, who added a number of refinements and decorative details. During the Hellenistic flow, Corinthian columns were sometimes built without fluting.^[44]

Decoration [edit]

Architectural ornament [edit]

This Archaic gorgon's head antefix has been cast in a mould, fired and painted.

The panthera leo's head gargoyle is fixed to a revetment on which elements of a formal frieze have been painted.

Early on wooden structures, particularly temples, were ornamented and in part protected by fired and painted terracotta revetments in the form of rectangular panels, and ornamental discs. Many fragments of these have outlived the buildings that they busy and demonstrate a wealth of formal border designs of geometric scrolls, overlapping patterns and foliate motifs.^[45] With the introduction of stone-congenital temples, the revetments no longer served a protective purpose and sculptured ornamentation became more than common.

The clay ornaments were limited to the roof of buildings, decorating the cornice, the corners and surmounting the pediment. At the corners of pediments they were called acroteria and forth the sides of the building, antefixes. Early decorative elements were generally semi-circular, but subsequently of roughly triangular shape with moulded ornamentation, often palmate.^{[45] [46]} Ionic cornices were often set with a row of lion'due south masks, with open mouths that ejected rainwater.^{[28] [46]} From the Tardily Classical period, acroteria were sometimes sculptured figures (see Architectural sculpture).^[47]

In the three orders of ancient Greek architecture, the sculptural decoration, exist information technology a simple half round astragal, a frieze of stylised foliage or the ornate sculpture of the pediment, is all essential to the architecture of which information technology is a part. In the Doric gild, at that place is no variation in its placement. Reliefs never decorate walls in an arbitrary way. The sculpture is always located in several predetermined areas, the metopes and the pediment.^[45] In later Ionic architecture, there is greater diversity in the types and numbers of mouldings and decorations, particularly around doorways, where voluted brackets sometimes occur supporting an ornamental cornice over a door, such as that at the Erechtheion.^{[28] [30] [45]} A much applied narrow moulding is chosen "bead and reel" and is symmetrical, stemming from turned wooden prototypes. Wider mouldings include one with natural language-like or pointed leaf shapes, which are grooved and sometimes turned up at the tip, and "egg and dart" moulding which alternates ovoid shapes with narrow pointy ones.^{[28] [45] [48]}

Architectural sculpture [edit]

Architectural sculpture showed a evolution from early Archaic examples through Severe Classical, High Classical, Tardily Classical and Hellenistic.^[1] Remnants of Primitive architectural sculpture (700–500 BC) exist from the early 6th century BC with the earliest surviving pedimental sculptures beingness fragments of a Gorgon flanked by heraldic panthers from the center of the pediment of the Artemis Temple of Corfu.^[49] A metope from a temple known equally "Temple C" at Selinus, Sicily, shows, in a meliorate preserved country, Perseus slaying the Gorgon Medusa.^[41] Both images parallel the stylised depiction of the Gorgons on the black figure proper name vase decorated past the Nessos painter (c. 600 BC), with the face and shoulders turned frontally, and the legs in a running or kneeling position. At this engagement, images of terrifying monsters have predominance over the emphasis on the human figure that developed with Humanist philosophy.^[49]

Early pedimental sculptures, and those on smaller temples, were usually in relief, and the late complimentary-standing ones were often in terra cotta, which has survived only in fragments. The sculptures were covered with a layer of stucco and painted or, if terra cotta, painted with the more restrained fired colours of Greek pottery.^[fifty]

The Severe Classical Style (500–450 BC) is represented by the pedimental sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (470–456 BC). The eastern pediment shows a moment of stillness and "impending drama" earlier the beginning of a chariot race, the figures of Zeus and the competitors existence severe and idealised representations of the human form.^[51] The western pediment has Apollo equally the central figure, "majestic" and "remote", presiding over a battle of Lapiths and Centaurs, in potent dissimilarity to that of the eastern pediment for its depiction of violent activeness, and described past Donald E. Strong every bit the "most powerful piece of illustration" for a hundred years.^[51]

Classical figurative sculpture from the eastern pediment of the Parthenon, British Museum.

The reliefs and three-dimensional sculpture which adorned the frieze and pediments, respectively, of the Parthenon, are the lifelike products of the Loftier Classical style (450–400 BC) and were created under the direction of the sculptor Phidias.^[52] The pedimental sculpture represents the Gods of Olympus, while the frieze shows the Panathenaic procession and ceremonial events that took place every 4 years to honor the titular Goddess of Athens.^[52] The frieze and remaining figures of the eastern pediment bear witness a profound agreement of the human trunk, and how it varies depending upon its position and the stresses that activity and emotion place upon it. Benjamin Robert Haydon described the reclining figure of Dionysus as "the most heroic fashion of art, combined with all the essential item of actual life".^[53]

The names of many famous sculptors are known from the Late Classical menstruation (400–323 BC), including Timotheos, Praxiteles, Leochares and Skopas, but their works are known mainly from Roman copies.^[ane] Footling architectural sculpture of the menses remains intact. The Temple of Asclepius at Epidauros had sculpture by Timotheos working with the architect Theodotos. Fragments of the eastern pediment survive, showing the Sack of Troy. The scene appears to have filled the space with figures carefully bundled to fit the slope and shape available, as with earlier eastward pediment of the Temple of Zeus at Olympus. Merely the figures are more tearing in action, the central space taken up, not with a commanding God, simply with the dynamic figure of Neoptolemos as he seizes the aged rex Priam and stabs him. The remaining fragments give the impression of a whole range of man emotions, fearfulness, horror, cruelty and lust for conquest.^[47] The acroteria were sculptured by Timotheus, except for that at the centre of the eastward pediment which is the piece of work of the architect. The palmate acroteria have been replaced hither with small figures, the eastern pediment being surmounted by a winged Nike, poised against the wind.^[47]

Hellenistic architectural sculpture (323–31 BC) was to become more flamboyant, both in the rendering of expression and move, which is oft emphasised past flowing draperies, the Nike Samothrace which busy a monument in the shape of a ship existence a well-known example. The Pergamon Altar (c. 180–160 BC) has a frieze (120 metres long past 2.3 metres loftier) of figures in very loftier relief. The frieze represents the battle for supremacy of Gods and Titans, and employs many dramatic devices: frenzy, pathos and triumph, to convey the sense of conflict.^[54]

Archaic metope: Perseus and Medusa, Temple C at Selinunte.

Severe Classical metope: Labours of Hercules, Temple of Zeus, Olympus

Loftier Classical frieze: Panathenaic Ritual, Parthenon, Athens

Hellenistic frieze: Battle of Gods and Titans, the Pergamon Altar.

Ionic caryatid from the Erechtheion

Encounter also [edit]

• Ancient Greek art
• Ancient Roman architecture
• Byzantine architecture
• Classical compages
• Greek culture
• Greek engineering
• Listing of ancient architectural records
• Listing of aboriginal Greek temples
• Mod Greek compages
• Outline of classical architecture

References [edit]

Citations [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f} Boardman et al. 1967.
2. ^ Lawrence 1957, pp. 83–84.
3. ^ ^{a b c d e} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 126–132.
4. ^ Pevsner 1943, p. 19.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 10–14.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e} Fletcher 1996, pp. 89–91.
7. ^ Higgins & Higgins 1996, Chapter 3.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j} Fletcher 1996, pp. 93–97.
9. ^ ^{a b c} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 110–114.
10. ^ ^{a b c} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. ninety–109.
11. ^ Fletcher 1996; Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004.
12. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, p. 35.
13. ^ Potent 1965, pp. 33–102.
14. ^ Strong 1965, pp. 39–40, 62–66.
15. ^ Fletcher 1996, pp. 119–121.
16. ^ Potent 1965, pp. 35–36.
17. ^ Lawrence 1957, pp. 65–67.
18. ^ Fletcher 1996, pp. 151–153.
19. ^ Neer 2012.
20. ^ Penrose 1893, pp. 42–43.
21. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 49–50.
22. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 74–75.
23. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 97.
24. ^ Moffett, Fazio & Wodehouse 2003, pp. 62–64.
25. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher 1996, pp. 147–148.
26. ^ 2004 Summer Olympics Official Report Archived 2008-08-xix at the Wayback Machine Volume 2. pp. 237, 242, 244.
27. ^ ^{a b c} Strong 1965, pp. 38–forty.
28. ^ ^{a b c d e} Fletcher 1996, p. 107.
29. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher 1996, p. 155.
30. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 159.
31. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, p. 25.
32. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, p. 12; Rostoker & Gebhard 1981, p. 212.
33. ^ ^{a b} Goldberg 1983, pp. 305–309.
34. ^ ^{a b c} Wikander 1990, pp. 285–289.
35. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f thousand} Fletcher 1996, pp. 107–109.
36. ^ ^{a b c} Fletcher 1996.
37. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 126.
38. ^ ^{a b} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 138–148.
39. ^ Moffett, Fazio & Wodehouse 2003, pp. 50–53.
40. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f} Fletcher 1996, pp. 108–112.
41. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 58–60.
42. ^ ^{a b c d e} Fletcher 1996, pp. 125–129.
43. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 45, 49.
44. ^ ^{a b c d e} Fletcher 1996, pp. 137–139.
45. ^ ^{a b c d e} Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 22–25.
46. ^ ^{a b} Fletcher 1996, p. 163.
47. ^ ^{a b c} Boardman et al. 1967, p. 435.
48. ^ Fletcher 1996, p. 164.
49. ^ ^{a b} Potent 1965, pp. 39–xl.
50. ^ Lawrence 1957, pp. 110–111.
51. ^ ^{a b} Strong 1965, pp. 61–62.
52. ^ ^{a b} Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, pp. 143–148.
53. ^ Gardner, Kleiner & Mamiya 2004, p. 145.
54. ^ Boardman et al. 1967, pp. 509–510.

Sources [edit]

• Boardman, John; Dorig, Jose; Fuchs, Werner; Hirmer, Max (1967). The Art and Architecture of Ancient Greece. London: Thames and Hudson.
• Fletcher, Banister (1996) [1896]. Cruickshank, Dan (ed.). Sir Banister's A History of Compages (20th ed.). Oxford: Architectural Press. ISBN0750622679.
• Gardner, Helen; Kleiner, Fred S.; Mamiya, Christin J. (2004). Gardner's Fine art through the Ages (twelfth ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN0155050907.
• Goldberg, Marilyn Y. (July 1983). "Greek Temples and Chinese Roofs". American Journal of Archaeology. 87 (iii): 305–310. doi:ten.2307/504798. JSTOR 504798.
• Higgins, Michael Denis; Higgins, Reynold (1996). A Geological Companion to Greece and the Aegean (PDF). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Academy Printing. ISBN0801433371.
• Lawrence, Arnold Walter (1957). Greek Compages (Penguin History of Art). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
• Moffett, Marian; Fazio, Michael Due west.; Wodehouse, Laurence (2003). A World History of Architecture. London: Laurence King Publishing. ISBN1856693538.
• Neer, Richard T. (2012). Greek Art and Archaeology: A New History, c. 2500–c. 150 BCE. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson. ISBN9780500288771. OCLC 745332893.
• Sideris, Athanasios (2008). "Re-contextualized Antiquity: Interpretative VR Visualisation of Ancient Fine art and Architecture". In Mikropoulos, T. A.; Papachristos, North. Thousand. (eds.). Proceedings: International Symposium on "Data and Communication Technologies in Cultural Heritage" October 16–18, 2008. Ioannina: The University of Ioannina. pp. 159–176. ISBN9789609869102.
• Stierlin, Henri (2004). Greece: From Mycenae to the Parthenon. Köln: Taschen.
• Strong, Donald Eastward. (1965). The Classical Earth. London: Paul Hamlyn.
• Penrose, Francis (11 May 1893). "The Orientation of Geek Temples". Nature. 48 (1228): 42–43.
• Pevsner, Nikolaus (1943). An Outline of European Architecture. London: John Murray.
• Rostoker, William; Gebhard, Elizabeth (Summer 1981). "The Reproduction of Rooftiles for the Archaic Temple of Poseidon at Isthmia, Greece". Journal of Field Archaeology. eight (2): 211–212.
• Wikander, Örjan (January–March 1990). "Archaic Roof Tiles the Outset Generations". Hesperia. 59 (i): 285–290. doi:x.2307/148143. JSTOR 148143.

External links [edit]

• Cartwright, Marker (6 January 2013). "Greek Architecture". World History Encyclopedia . Retrieved 8 May 2021.
• The Foundations of Classical Architecture Part Two: Greek Classicism – Free educational program by the ICAA (published Baronial 29, 2018)

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